![]() Atherosclerotic plaque formation however, is not thought to be fully reversible and in terms of CVD, smokers would never be expected to reach the risk level of those who have never smoked, especially if they continue to smoke after the age of 30. In both experimental and human studies, several of these are reversible, even after a short period (a few weeks) of smoking cessation. Smoking can increase the development of atherosclerosis and superimposed thrombotic phenomena by affecting platelet function, fibrinolysis, endothelial function, oxidative processes, inflammation, lipid oxidation and vasomotor function. Although the risk factor modification has improved significantly thanks to appropriate public awareness campaigns/programmes, including successful anti-smoking legislation, it is still anticipated that a healthy lifestyle can further prevent in excess of 80% of CVD. ĭespite the huge reduction in cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the last 30 years, CVD still remains the most common cause of death worldwide. Furthermore, the amount of healthcare expenditure due to smoking-attributable diseases is similarly significant and increasing, approaching $500 annually in the USA. Each year five million deaths are directly related to smoking with 600,000 additional deaths caused by passive smoking. Currently, there are more than 1 billion smokers worldwide with 80% of them living in low and middle income countries. ![]()
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